Рубрика: Wild Medicinal Plants

On birch trunks, the parasitic fungus chaga (Inonotus obliquus (Pers.) Pilat., forma sterilis), also known as the tilted polypore, frequently develops. This fungus belongs to the basidiomycetes.

The spores, dispersed in the air, land on damaged areas of tree bark (broken branches, frost damage, etc.) and begin to germinate, forming mycelium. The fungal threads of the mycelium penetrate the wood, gradually destroying it and causing white heart rot. At the initial site of spore penetration, black growths, called chaga, develop from the fungus hyphae. These growths expand over 10–15 years, reaching substantial sizes and weights of 3–5 kg or more. These formations represent the sterile mycelium of the fungus, while the fruiting body producing basidiospores develops under the bark and remains hidden.

Chaga is harvested in forests from old, growing birches or felled trees in logging areas. The fungus does not develop on young birches. On deadwood or fallen trees, chaga decomposes, and other non-medicinal fungi grow in its place. At the base of old birches, one may find decayed, crumbly, uniformly black chaga growths, which are unsuitable for collection.

Chaga can be collected year-round, but it is easier to locate growths during the leafless season, from autumn to spring. Growths on the tree have round, elongated, or oval shapes, sometimes appearing as narrow, long formations along cracks, up to 1–1.5 m in length. The growths are dense and, when cut, show three layers:

The outer layer: black, knobby, and cracked.

The middle layer: very dense, brown, and granular in fracture, forming the bulk of the chaga.

The inner layer: loose, extending into the wood.

The growths are chopped off with an axe along the trunk, and the loose inner part, unsuitable for collection, is removed along with attached pieces of bark and wood. The harvested chaga is cut into pieces 3–6 cm in size and dried in the air or at a temperature not exceeding 50–60°C.

Chaga contains no alkaloids or glycosides. Its activity is attributed to a water-soluble pigment fraction containing a chromogenic polyphenol-carbon complex (20%) that forms colloidal aqueous solutions. The ash content is 12.3%, rich in manganese, which may contribute to its therapeutic effects by activating enzymes. Chaga also contains resin (not fully studied), agaricinic acid, and other substances.

Chaga is consumed internally as a semi-thick extract with added cobalt salts (Befungin). It is prescribed as a symptomatic remedy for malignant tumors of various localizations when surgical intervention or radiation therapy is not possible. Chaga improves patients’ well-being and is also recommended for gastrointestinal disorders.

The extract, diluted in boiled water, is taken at 3.5 g per day. A homemade infusion can be prepared as follows: Fresh chaga is washed and grated. Dried chaga is softened by soaking in boiled cold water for 4 hours and then grated. One part grated chaga is combined with 5 parts boiled water at 40–50°C (no higher) and left to steep for 48 hours. The liquid is then strained, the residue is squeezed, and the water used for soaking is added. This infusion can be stored in a cold place for 4 days. It is consumed in three glasses per day, divided into several doses, half an hour before meals.

A perennial herbaceous plant with a short, thick, dark-brown, oblique rhizome covered in fine roots and long, thin above-ground creeping shoots. These shoots root at nodes, enabling vegetative reproduction. The basal leaves are long-petioled and trifoliate, with leaflets that are obovate or rhombic, coarsely toothed, dark green on top, and bluish-green with appressed hairs on the underside. The stems are thin, slightly taller than the basal leaves, and have 1–2 small, underdeveloped, simple leaves.

The inflorescence is terminal, few-flowered, and resembles a corymb. The flowers are bisexual, with a calyx and an epicalyx, each composed of 5 segments. There are 5 white petals, and numerous stamens and pistils. The fruit is drooping and false, formed from an enlarged, conical or ovoid, juicy, red receptacle, dotted with numerous small, dry, nut-like seeds. It is commonly called a berry — Fructus Fragariae. The berry is supported by a calyx and an epicalyx with reflexed and slightly bent-back sepals. Flowering occurs in May–June, with fruit ripening in July–August.

This species grows nearly across the entire country, thriving in meadows, forest clearings, forests, and grassy slopes.

The berries contain sugars, pectins, malic and other organic acids, vitamin C, vitamin B, anthocyanins, and more. They are used fresh or dried for liver and bile duct disorders. Fresh leaves contain 250–280 mg% of vitamin C and are used in vitamin-rich beverages and as a diuretic. Occasionally, the rhizome, rich in tannins, is used as an astringent and diuretic. An infusion of wild strawberry leaves contains a high concentration of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which gives it antiscorbutic properties. It also slows the heart rate, strengthens heart contractions, and dilates blood vessels.

Wild strawberry tea is prepared by crushing 20 g of leaves, pouring a cup of boiling water over them, boiling for 5–10 minutes, and steeping for 2 hours. It is consumed in 1 tablespoon doses, 3–4 times a day.

When harvesting fruits for medicinal purposes, similar species should not be collected: Fragaria viridis and Fragaria moschata.

Other Similar Species

Fragaria viridis Duch. (Green Strawberry or Barren Strawberry): The fruits are nearly spherical, yellowish-white, with a red tip, and the calyx and epicalyx are appressed to the fruit. It grows in almost the same regions.

Fragaria moschata Duch. (Musk Strawberry or Strawberry): A dioecious plant with unisexual flowers and densely hairy leaves on both sides. The fruits are very fragrant, whitish with a red side, and grow wild only in the European part. Musk strawberry is often cultivated.

A perennial herbaceous plant with a characteristic root system: the rhizome is short, obliquely growing, black-brown on the outside and pinkish in fracture, with numerous thin roots up to 15 cm long. Some roots swell locally, forming spindle-shaped or spherical tuber-like thickenings. The leaves are of two types: basal leaves, larger in shape, oblong with deeply dissected lobes, and stem leaves, smaller with fewer lobes. The inflorescence is terminal, forming a dense panicle; flowers are small, white, with six petals. It blooms from May to July and bears fruit from July to August.

This species is very common, predominantly found in the middle and southern regions of the European part of Russia, as well as in Western and Eastern Siberia, in steppes, dry meadows, forest clearings, and forest edges.

The tubers contain up to 36% tannins, while the leaves have about 14%. The leaves also contain a glycoside that releases salicylaldehyde. A small amount of vitamin C has also been found.

The raw material used consists of cleaned and dried rhizomes with roots of Filipendula hexapetala — Rhizoma et radices Filipendulae hexapetalae.

The rhizomes with roots have astringent properties.

Further north, in the forest zone, Filipendula ulmaria L. (Meadowsweet) is widespread in moist open areas. This plant is taller and more robust, with large, pinnately lobed leaves. Its inflorescence forms panicles with five-petaled flowers. The rhizomes are larger, but the roots do not form tubers. The leaves and especially the root system are rich in tannins and are used as an antidiarrheal, while the flowers contain methyl salicylate.

FAMILY BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE)

Usually herbaceous plants with alternate leaves. Flowers are regular, with separate petals, a 4-part calyx, a 4-petaled corolla, 6 stamens (2 shorter than the others), and a superior, two-chambered ovary with one style. The fruit is either a long pod or a short silique, dehiscing with two valves that detach from the longitudinal septum bearing the seeds; less commonly, the fruit is segmented, splitting transversely into joints, or indehiscent. Seeds are small, spherical, or oval, with the endosperm remaining only as an aleurone layer and a bent embryo root. The root can curve along the back of one cotyledon, forming a visible bulge («dorsal-root seed»); along the edge of two cotyledons, creating an edge bulge («edge-root seed»); or be enclosed by both bent cotyledons and not visible externally.

The seed coat has a uniform structure with several layers: a frequently mucilaginous epidermis, palisade or goblet-shaped cells, a pigmented layer, an aleurone layer, and a compressed hyaline layer. A family characteristic is the presence of appressed, single-celled, bifurcated or branched hairs on stems, leaves, and pods, noticeable under a magnifying glass. In some genera, hairs are simple, or plants may be glabrous.

Another notable family feature is the leaf epidermis structure. There are three subsidiary cells around the stomata, one significantly smaller than the others. Oxalates are not deposited in leaves (rarely in fruits).

Chemically, the family is characterized by the presence of thioglycosides containing sulfur and nitrogen compounds. The best-known is sinigrin (from mustard), which breaks down into glucose, potassium bisulfate, and allyl isothiocyanate. The latter has irritant properties, causing skin blisters and mucous membrane inflammation, stimulates intestinal activity, tastes pungent, enhances appetite, and has phytoncidal properties. Myrosin, the enzyme responsible, is found in specialized cells distributed across various plant organs. Thioglycosides or isothiocyanates, also known as mustard oils, have diverse structures. The allyl group may be replaced by other aliphatic or cyclic groups, and the thiocyanate group may occur in iso- or normal configurations, with the latter compounds having a garlic-like smell. These compounds are found in different plant organs in varying quantities.

The family also contains synapine, a derivative of choline, but true alkaloids have not yet been found.

Phenolic compounds, especially flavonoids derived from quercetin and kaempferol, are found in leaves. Tannins are almost absent.

Various vitamins and other substances occur in this family. Saponins are rare and present in minimal amounts. The family is notably deficient in manganese. Seeds are rich in fatty oil, typically non-drying. Erucic and behenic acids are characteristic of the family. In the epidermis of mature seeds, starch is present but converts to dense mucus upon maturation, which hydrolyzes to arabinose, galactose, glucuronic acid, etc. Some seeds of cruciferous plants (e.g., Sisymbrium) have been proposed as laxatives due to their mucilage content.

Thioglycosides are found in larger or smaller quantities in cruciferous vegetables (horseradish, radish, turnip, cabbage, etc.) and some medicinal plants recognized in both scientific and folk medicine. Examples include Lepidium, Thlaspi, Alliaria, Nasturtium officinale, and others. Among the genus Erysimum, Syrenia, Cheiranthus, and Iberis, steroid cardiac glycosides have been found.

ERYSIMUM

Annual, biennial, and perennial herbaceous plants. Biennials form only a leaf rosette in the first year, with a flowering stem and fruits appearing in the second year. Leaves in all species are simple, with entire or lobed-toothed margins. Flowers are in racemes, usually yellow (rarely lilac). Pods are cylindrical or quadrangular, with convex valves. Seeds are arranged in a single row in each locule (distinct from closely related genera). Appressed branched hairs are present, and the number of branches (2–3–4–5) and hair distribution serve as species-specific traits. All studied species of Erysimum contain cardiac glycosides. There are over 50 species, mainly growing in steppes of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Southern Siberia, with some species found in forest zones and meadows.

Currently, two species of Erysimum are used in medicine:

1. Erysimum diffusum or Erysimum canescens — a biennial plant forming a leaf rosette in the first year and a flowering shoot in the second year. The plant has grayish-green foliage due to appressed hairs. Pods are very long, slender, and also covered with whitish hairs. It grows wild in Central Asia, but raw materials (flowering herb) are harvested from plantations.
2. Erysimum cheiranthoides — an annual plant with bright green foliage. Pods are shorter and thicker than those of Erysimum diffusum. It grows in fields and meadows in the forest zone of the European part of Russia.

All species contain cardiac glycosides with cardiotonic effects.

Preparations include:

Erysimin, a solution of the primary glycoside from Erysimum diffusum, hydrolyzing into strophanthidin and digitoxose. Administered intravenously in doses of 0.5–1 ml of a 0.033% solution, available in 1 ml ampoules.

Erysimocide, a glycoside from Erysimum diffusum seeds, hydrolyzing into strophanthidin and glucose. Taken orally in tablets of 0.005 g twice daily or as a 0.2% alcoholic solution (20 drops twice daily).

Coresid, a 0.05% solution of glycosides from Erysimum cheiranthoides flowers, available in 1 ml ampoules. Administered intravenously in doses of 0.5–1 ml in 20 ml of a 20% glucose solution.

Cardiovalen, a complex preparation containing fresh Erysimum diffusum juice, adonizid, hawthorn extract, and others. Taken orally in doses of 15–20 drops 1–2 times daily.

All these preparations are prescribed for various degrees of heart failure.

The sporophyte develops a cluster of large leaves above ground. The leaf blade is dark green, with an elongated-elliptical outline (distinctive of other species), and is bipinnate; the second-order lobes have blunt teeth (never needle-like, distinguishing it from the needle fern). The petiole of the leaf is densely covered with rusty-brown scales, swollen at the underground base, and remains on the rhizome after the leaf dies. Sporangia on the underside of the leaf are grouped into sori and covered by a kidney-shaped indusium (different from the female fern, which has elongated indusia). The rhizome is large, thick, and inclined in growth.

It grows in damp forests in deep shade. The male fern’s range is fragmented. The primary region is in the European part, where it grows in spruce and mixed spruce-deciduous forests, green mossy areas, and among shrubs; in broadleaf zones, it is usually found in oak forests. The largest populations are in the central region and along the Volga. Smaller, isolated populations occur in mountainous areas. In the Caucasus, it forms large populations in beech mountain forests, in Central Asia in Tian Shan (under Schrenk spruce), and in Siberia (Altai and Sayan) in spruce-fir taigas.

The rhizome of the male fern (Rhizoma Filicis maris) is harvested in autumn (August-October), removing small roots, dead parts, and dried petiole parts. The cylindrical, underground bases of the petioles are left, layered on the rhizome with fine brown scales between them. Drying is done in the open air or dryers at 40 °C. Rhizome stocks are renewed annually since the active substances decompose during storage. Preparations are made in autumn from fresh, dried rhizomes; these rhizomes appear green when broken. The total active substances of the male fern form a dark mass called «raw filicin.» Several crystalline substances have been isolated from raw filicin. The main one in quantity and effect is filicic acid (pure filicin); lesser compounds include flavaspidic acid and albaspidin. These substances are methylated derivatives of phloroglucinol with butyric acid.

The rhizome is used as an anthelmintic against tapeworms. A galenic preparation, an ethereal extract, is prescribed in gelatin capsules of 0.5 g. A diet and saline laxative are followed a day before taking the preparation. On the next day, the preparation is administered (to adults) in 2–8 g over 30 minutes, i.e., 16 capsules, followed by a saline laxative 2 hours later. If necessary, the treatment can be repeated a week later (2–3 times). The maximum single dose of the extract for adults is 8 g.

Some other species of the genus Dryopteris, containing phloroglucinol derivatives and also possessing anthelmintic properties, form large populations in forest zones of the European part, the Caucasus, and the Far East. In Japan, the closest species or its variety, Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai, has been traditionally used. Other species of this genus are being studied. An unacceptable admixture is the female fern (Athyrium filix-femina Roth), which grows in the same forests.

A herbaceous liana up to 4 m long, with a thick, horizontal, and branched rhizome. The leaves are petiolate, heart-shaped-ovate, pointed, with a slightly wavy edge, and 9–13 arcuate veins. The flowers are unisexual, small, greenish, with a simple, deeply divided perianth. The staminate flowers have 6 stamens and a reduced ovary, with a short style and 3 stigmas. Staminate flowers grow in clusters of 1–3 in loose axillary racemes, while pistillate flowers are solitary in racemes. The fruit is a capsule with three membranous wings. The seeds are fully surrounded by a wing. It blooms from May to July and bears fruit from July to September. Found only in oak forests and among shrubs in the mountains of the Western Caucasus at an altitude of 400–1000 m.

Rhizomes with roots are collected in spring, no later than the flowering phase, dried, and cut into pieces. The total saponin content is about 5–8%. The steroid saponin dioscin, which breaks down into glucose, rhamnose, and diosgenin, has been studied in greater detail.

The preparation diosponin, consisting of a sum of water-soluble saponins from the rhizomes of Dioscorea, is taken in tablets of 0.05–0.1 g twice a day after meals for 10 days to treat atherosclerosis.

Dioscorea nipponica, or multi-racemose, — Dioscorea nipponica Makino (Dioscorea polystachya Turcz.). Grows in the Primorsky Krai, in forests and among shrubs. It differs from Dioscorea caucasica in its leaves, which are broadly heart-shaped with 3–5–7 lobes. The seeds have wings only at the top. The rhizomes also contain saponins (4.5%), including dioscin.

The genus Delphinium is divided into two subgenera in the «Flora». Species belonging to the subgenus Eudelphinium are perennial herbaceous plants, while those in the subgenus Consolida are annuals (it has been proposed to separate Consolida into an independent family).

The leaves are usually rounded, with palmate venation, more or less deeply lobed or dissected, alternate, and have petioles. The inflorescence is a raceme. Flowers are irregular, with a calyx of five petal-like colored sepals. The upper sepal is flat and extends into a spur. In the subgenus Eudelphinium, there are two petals modified into nectar glands, also elongated into spurs that fit into the calyx spur, and two petal-like staminodes. In the subgenus Consolida, there is one nectar gland in the form of a spur and no staminodes. Numerous stamens and a superior ovary. The fruit consists of 1–5 multi-seeded follicles.

Delphinium species differ from Aconitum, which also have lobed leaves and irregular flowers, but their upper sepals are shaped like a helmet or hood and lack a spur.

Not all species have been chemically studied.

Delphinium elatum L. contains the alkaloid elatin.

D. confusum M. Pop. contains the alkaloid condelphin.

D. dictyocarpum DC. contains the alkaloid methyllycaconitine.

D. semibarbatum Bien. and D. rotundifolium Alan. contain the alkaloid delsemin.

Delphinium elatum grows in the European part and Siberia, while other species are found in Central Asia.

Some species from the North Caucasus contain significant amounts of methyllycaconitine among their alkaloids. These alkaloids belong to isoquinoline derivatives and exhibit curare-like effects.

Curare is a poison used by South American indigenous peoples that paralyzes skeletal muscles. For the past three decades, the active principle of curare, d-tubocurarine, has been used to relax skeletal muscles during surgery in combination with anesthetics such as ether or halothane.

Due to the scarcity of d-tubocurarine, synthetic compounds have been developed. Attempts have been made to find similar substances among Delphinium alkaloids, though they have not been used in surgery. However, their ability to reduce muscle tone is utilized in neurology for conditions involving increased muscle tone and motor dysfunction.

The preparations condelphin and mellictin have been approved for medical use.

Mellictin: 0.02 g tablets, taken 1–5 times daily, for several weeks.

Condelphin: 0.025 g, 1–3 times daily, under medical supervision for extended treatment.

Cytisine is also found in other plants; it is particularly characteristic of species in the genus Cytisus. Among the incompletely studied species, the most promising for exploitation is Cytisus austriacus L., found in Ukraine, Moldova, Crimea, and the North Caucasus. Its leaves contain about 0.5% alkaloids, including 0.2% cytisine, while its seeds have a higher concentration of cytisine (around 0.5%).

Alkaloids of this group have also been found in species belonging to the genera Genista, Crotalaria, Spartium, Sarothamnus, and in cultivated Lupinus. They are not yet used in medicine.

Hawthorn — Crataegus

Tall shrubs or small trees. Some branches of certain species have straight axillary thorns. Leaves are alternate, with stipules, short-petiolate, simple, more or less deeply lobed, with a large, toothed edge. Flowers are small, white, arranged in corymbs. Each flower consists of a green, externally pubescent, cup-shaped receptacle, bearing a five-lobed calyx, five free white petals, and numerous stamens with purple anthers. The ovary is inferior. The fruit is a false, apple-like drupe, fleshy, nearly spherical, with an annular border and five calyx teeth at the top; inside, seeds have an angular, light-yellow woody shell. Crataegus usually blooms in May–June and bears fruit in August. Species are mainly differentiated by leaf shape, pubescence, fruit size and color, number of stones, presence of thorns, and, to some extent, by branch color.

Crataegus oxyacantha L., also known as common hawthorn, is well studied and collected. It is not found in the wild but is cultivated in gardens and parks in central Europe, Ukraine, and the Baltic states. Its origin is Western Europe.

Among wild species, Crataegus sanguinea Pall., or blood-red hawthorn, is widely collected. It is distinguished by thin, purplish-brown, glossy branches; short-hairy leaves on both sides; and fruits with 3–4 stones.

Crataegus sanguinea grows in forest-steppe zones and southern forest regions. It is most common in Western Siberia and extends to eastern European regions. In Eastern Siberia, it is gradually replaced by the closely related Crataegus dahurica Koehne, which has orange-red fruits.

In Ukraine, Crataegus kyrtostyla Eingern., Crataegus pentagyna W. et K., and Crataegus curvisepala are found.

Two types of raw materials are collected: Flores Crataegi and Fructus Crataegi. Flowers are collected at the beginning of flowering, including some buds, separated into parts, and dried in the shade. Ripe fruits are harvested by removing entire corymbs, then removing peduncles, unripe, or spoiled fruits, and drying them in the sun or in moderately heated ovens.

The flowers, fruits, and leaves of Crataegus oxyacantha contain complex active compounds: several flavonoids, triterpene saponins, sapogenins, ursolic and oleanolic acids, choline, acetylcholine, and derivatives. Flavonoids include hyperoside, quercetin, vitexin, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid. Seeds contain amygdalin, and the fruit pulp contains tartaric and citric acids and sugars; the fruits have up to 200 mg of vitamin C and carotene.

In medicine, liquid extracts from fruits or tinctures from flowers are used for cardiovascular diseases as heart muscle tonics, sedatives, and hypotensive agents. They are prescribed in doses of 20–30 drops, 3–4 times a day. The complex preparation «Cardiovalen» contains Crataegus extract.

A branching shrub or, less commonly, a small tree with yellow wood. The leaves are rounded or elliptical, smooth, with petioles and main veins typically red-violet. Inflorescences form at the tips of branches as large, sprawling panicles. The flowers are inconspicuous, greenish-white, with a double perianth; some are bisexual, and others are staminate on the same plant. The fruits are small drupes with a drying pericarp. The pedicels of numerous sterile flowers elongate significantly after flowering, developing long, tangled, densely hairy orange-red threads, giving the shrub a highly decorative appearance. It blooms from June to July and bears fruit from August to September.

It grows in mountainous regions, on rocky slopes, chalk outcrops, among shrubs, and in sparse forests throughout the Caucasus, Crimea, and parts of southern Ukraine. Currently, it is widely cultivated in protective forest plantations as a leading secondary canopy species.

The leaves contain 12–20% tannin and 3–5% free gallic acid and are used to extract tannin. Additionally, the leaves and wood contain flavonol glycosides such as myricetin, fisetin, and others, and are used as a yellow dye. They also contain approximately 0.1–0.2% essential oil with a pleasant fragrance, used in perfumery.